Showing posts with label picture and vedio clip also.. Show all posts
Showing posts with label picture and vedio clip also.. Show all posts

Tuesday, December 14, 2010

Katrina Kaif Filmography and Her Winner Awards

0 comments Posted by pece at 10:24 PM

Katrina Kaif Life Style and Her Glorious Career Status-

Katrina Kaif
Born 16 July 1984 (age 26)(1984-07-16)
Hong Kong
Nationality British Indian
Occupation Model, Actress
Years active 2003 – present

Katrina Kaif (Kashmiri: क़त्रीना कैफ़ (Devanagari)) (born 16 July 1984) is an actress and former model who appears in Indian films, mainly in the Hindi-language film industry. She has also appeared in Telugu, and Malayalam films. She was voted the "Hottest Woman in the World" by Eastern Eye in the years 2008, 2009 and 2010.

Early life-

Kaif was born in Hong Kong to an Indian Kashmiri father, Mohammed Kaif, and an English mother, Suzanne Turquotte, both of whom are British citizens. Her parents divorced when she was very young. Kaif has seven siblings. She was raised in Hawaii and later moved to her mother's home country, England.

Career-

Kaif began her modeling career at the age fourteen; her first job was for a jewelry campaign. She continued modeling in London under a contract with the Models 1 Agency and did campaigns for houses such as La Senza and Arcadius, and even walked on the London Fashion Week.


Kaif's London modeling-work led to her discovery by London-based filmmaker Kaizad Gustad, who gave her a part in his film Boom (2003). She moved to Mumbai and was offered a number of modeling assignments. However, filmmakers were initially hesitant to sign her because she could not speak Hindi.
Kaif saw moderate success with the 2005 film Sarkar, where she played the bit part of Abhishek Bachchan's girlfriend, and Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya (2005), where she was paired opposite Salman Khan.

In 2007, Kaif appeared in her first major hit movie, Namastey London, wherein she starred as a British Indian girl alongside Akshay Kumar for the second time after the box office letdown Humko Deewana Kar Gaye (2006). Her run of hit films continued with Apne, Partner, and Welcome.

In 2008, she played the villain role for the first time in Abbas-Mustan's hit action thriller Race. She played the role of Saif Ali Khan's secretary who is secretly in love with his hostile stepbrother (played by Akshay Khanna). Kaif's second release of the year was Anees Bazmee's production Singh Is Kinng, opposite Akshay Kumar. The film was a big success at the box office. Kaif's final release of the year, Subhash Ghai's Yuvvraaj, was a commercial failure, but its script has made its way into the Library of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences for artistic merits, original screenplay with a substance, and the film as a whole.

Kaif's first release for 2009, New York, with John Abraham, was a critical and commercial success. Kaif's performance was highly regarded. Wrote critic Taran Adarsh, "Katrina gives you the biggest surprise. Known for her glamour roles, Katrina proves that she can deliver if the director and writer offer her a role of substance. She's outstanding. In fact, people will see a new, different Katrina this time."

She next played a bit role as a biker chick in the multi-starrer action film Blue, popularly known as India's first underwater thriller, which performed decently at the box office. The film was not successful.
At the year's end, she appeared in Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani, with Ranbir Kapoor, and De Dana Dan with Akshay Kumar. Both films were commercial successes.

  1. Images for katrina kaif-

  2. Kaif's first film of 2010 was Raajneeti, where she appeared opposite Ranbir Kapoor. The film did extremely well at the box office, receiving a blockbuster status. She is currently filming Farah Khan's Tees Maar Khan with Akshay Kumar. The film is set to be released on 24 December 2010.

Voice-

It should be noted that due to her poor knowledge of Hindi (and other Indian languages), Katrina Kaif's voice has often been dubbed over by another actress for many of her early films. With the exception of De Dana Dan, all her films since New York feature her real voice. Earlier films in which her real voice is also heard are Singh Is Kinng, Namastey London and Boom.

   

Awards-

Nominated
  • 2005: Zee Cine Award for Most Promising Debut, Sarkar
  • 2008: IIFA Award for Best Actress, Race
  • 2009: Apsara Award for Best Actress In Supporting Role, Race
  • 2009: IIFA Award for Best Actress, Singh Is Kinng
  • 2009: Stardust Award for Star Of The Year, Singh Is Kinng
  • 2009: Stardust Award for Best Actress In A Negative Role, Race
  • 2010: Screen Award for Best Actor In Popular Category, New York
  • 2010: Stardust Star of the Year Award – Female for New York & Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani 
  • 2010: Filmfare Best Actress Award for New York

Winner-
  • 2006: Stardust Breakthrough Performance Award (Female), Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya
  • 2006: Idea Zee F Awards, Fashion Diva of the Year 
  • 2008: Zee Cine Awards, British Indian Actor Award
  • 2008: IIFA Awards, Style Diva of the Year
  • 2008: Sabsey Favourite Kaun Awards, Sabsey Favourite Heroine, Singh Is Kinng
  • 2008: Apsara Film Producers Guild of India Awards, Style Diva of the Year
  • 2009: Rajiv Gandhi Award
  • 2009: Golden Kela Awards, Dara Singh Award for the Worst Accent
  • 2009: Sabsey Favourite Kaun Awards, Sabsey Favourite Heroine 
  • 2009: ASSOCHAM Award, Performing Excellence 
  • 2010: Star Screen Awards, Entertainer of the year 
  • 2010: Stardust Awards, Best Actress - Popular Award for New York & Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani 

 

Filmography-

Year Film Role Notes
2003 Boom Rina Kaif/Popdi Chinchpokli
2004 Malliswari Princess Malliswari Telugu film
2005 Sarkar Pooja
Maine Pyaar Kyun Kiya Sonia
Allari Pidugu Shwetha Telugu film
2006 Hum Ko Deewana Kar Gaye Jia A. Yashvardhan
Balram vs. Taradas Supriya Malayalam film
2007 Namastey London Jasmeet Malhotra (Jazz)
Apne Nandini
Partner Priya Jaisingh
Welcome Sanjana Shetty
2008 Race Sophia
Singh Is Kinng Sonia
Hello The Storyteller/God Cameo
Yuvvraaj Anushka Banton
2009 New York Maya Nominated, Filmfare Best Actress Award
Blue Nikki Cameo
Ajab Prem Ki Ghazab Kahani Jennifer (Jenny)
De Dana Dan Anjali Kakkad
2010 Raajneeti Indu Pratap
Tees Maar Khan Anya Filming
2011 Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara

Mere Brother Ki Dulhan
Filming
Dostana 2
Pre-Production

The countdown to the release of Tees Maar Khan is on and its lead stars Akshay Kumar and Katrina Kaif were spotted praying for the film’s success at the Golden Temple.

Akshay, who is a Punjabi boy, had his head covered with a saffron patka with the symbol of Sikhism. Katrina was very simply dressed in a white kurta, pyjama and a black jacket to keep away the chill of Amritsar winters.

The duo prayed together and, accompanied by Gurudwara officials, took a round of the holy shrine.

Akshay has had a poor year this year, with all his films flopping at box office. Hope his prayers will be answered and Tees Maar Khan will set the cash registers ringing.

Resplendent in white and frills!

Though it was the launch of Filmfare’s Tees Maar Khan special issue, Katrina Kaif’s look for the evening was not of a glam hottie but of a beautiful Barbie. No wonder she's the new face of the Barbie dolls.

The tiered sweetheart neckline BCBG dress in white was just perfect for Kat and her demure persona. In fact, she wore a similar dress in black for her Barbie launch event too. It seems the lady prefers feminine dresses, but her crystal studded sandal for the eve disappointed us a bit. Also present at the event was her co-star Akshay Kumar who was dressed in black from head to toe, and the couple looked amazing together. The combination of white and black always rocks.


Here is some news for the Priyankas and Deepikas of the industry: Katrina Kaif continues to rule the web world. The net queen is Yahoo Newsmaker of the year 2010.

 
After being the most googled celeb, it’s not surprising to see Kat as the Yahoo Newsmaker of the year. It seems that janta was more interested in Kat’s life, her beauty, her relationship with Bollywood’s Dabangg star Salman Khan (or is it a Kapoor boy), and now her sizzling item Sheila Ki Jawani.

Though the year has had many happening moments for India from multi-crore 2G scam to Bihar elections, the much-hyped President Obama visit and also not to forget India’s graft-ridden CWG, Kat continued to woo her fans and netizens.

Katrina is the lady who makes news!







From Wikipedia-

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Increase In Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming

0 comments Posted by pece at 11:02 AM

Greenhouse effect Contributors To Increase Global Air Temperature-



A representation of the exchanges of energy between the source (the Sun), the Earth's surface, the Earth's atmosphere, and the ultimate sink outer space. The ability of the atmosphere to capture and recycle energy emitted by the Earth surface is the defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface, energy is transferred to the surface and the lower atmosphere. As a result, the temperature there is higher than it would be if direct heating by solar radiation were the only warming mechanism.

This mechanism is fundamentally different from that of an actual greenhouse, which works by isolating warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection.
The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824, first reliably experimented on by John Tyndall in 1858, and first reported quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.

If an ideal thermally conductive blackbody was the same distance from the Sun as the Earth, it would have an expected blackbody temperature of 5.3 °C. However, since the Earth reflects about 30% (or 28%) of the incoming sunlight, the planet's actual blackbody temperature is about -18 or -19 °C, about 33°C below the actual surface temperature of about 14 °C or 15 °C. The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual temperature and the blackbody temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect.

Global warming, a recent warming of the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, is believed to be the result of a strengthening of the greenhouse effect mostly due to human-produced increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases.

Basic mechanism-

The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of visible light. This light is absorbed at the Earth's surface, and re-radiated as thermal radiation. Some of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, and re-radiated both upwards and downwards; that radiated downwards is absorbed by the Earth's surface. Thus the presence of the atmosphere results in the surface receiving more radiation than it would were the atmosphere absent; and it is thus warmer than it would otherwise be.

This highly simplified picture of the basic mechanism needs to be qualified in a number of ways, none of which affect the fundamental process.


The solar radiation spectrum for direct light at both the top of the Earth's atmosphere and at sea level
  • The incoming radiation from the Sun is mostly in the form of visible light and nearby wavelengths, largely in the range 0.2 - 4 μm, corresponding to the Sun's radiative temperature of 6,000 K. Almost half the radiation is in the form of "visible" light, which our eyes are adapted to use.
  • About 50% of the Sun's energy is absorbed at the Earth's surface and the rest is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere. The reflection of light back into space - largely by clouds - does not much affect the basic mechanism; this light, effectively, is lost to the system
  • The absorbed energy warms the surface. Simple presentations of the greenhouse effect, such as the idealized greenhouse model, show this heat being lost as thermal radiation. The reality is more complex: the atmosphere near the surface is largely opaque to thermal radiation (with important exceptions for "window" bands), and most heat loss from the surface is by sensible heat and latent heat transport. Radiative energy losses become increasingly important higher in the atmosphere largely because of the decreasing concentration of water vapor, an important greenhouse gas. It is more realistic to think of the greenhouse effect as applying to a "surface" in the mid-troposphere, which is effectively coupled to the surface by a lapse rate.
  • Within the region where radiative effects are important the description given by the idealized greenhouse model becomes realistic: The surface of the Earth, warmed to a temperature around 255 K, radiates long-wavelength, infrared heat in the range 4 - 100 μm. At these wavelengths, greenhouse gases that were largely transparent to incoming solar radiation are more absorbent. Each layer of atmosphere with greenhouses gases absorbs some of the heat being radiated upwards from lower layers. To maintain its own equilibrium, it re-radiates the absorbed heat in all directions, both upwards and downwards. This results in more warmth below, while still radiating enough heat back out into deep space from the upper layers to maintain overall thermal equilibrium. Increasing the concentration of the gases increases the amount of absorption and re-radiation, and thereby further warms the layers and ultimately the surface below.
  • The majority of the atmosphere—in particular, O2 and N2 which together form more than 99% of the dry atmosphere—is transparent to infrared radiation. Only triatomic (and higher) gases interact with infrared. However, due to intermolecular collisions, the energy absorbed and emitted by the greenhouse gases is effectively shared by the non-radiatively active gases.
  • The simple picture assumes equilibrium. In the real world there is the diurnal cycle as well as seasonal cycles and weather. Solar heating only applies during daytime. During the night, the atmosphere cools somewhat, but not greatly, because its emissivity is low, and during the day the atmosphere warms. Diurnal temperature changes decrease with height in the atmosphere.

Role in climate change-

 Global warming

The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured at Mauna Loa Observatory.
Strengthening of the greenhouse effect through human activities is known as the enhanced (or anthropogenic) greenhouse effect. This increase in radiative forcing from human activity is attributable mainly to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

CO2 is produced by fossil fuel burning and other activities such as cement production and tropical deforestation. Measurements of CO2 from the Mauna Loa observatory show that concentrations have increased from about 313 ppm in 1960 to about 389 ppm in 2010. The current observed amount of CO2 The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on the global climate, a special case of the greenhouse effect first described in 1896 by Svante Arrhenius, has also been called the Callendar effect. exceeds the geological record maxima (~300 ppm) from ice core data.

 
Because it is a greenhouse gas, elevated CO2 levels contribute to additional absorption and emission of thermal infrared in the atmosphere, which produce net warming. According to the latest Assessment Report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, "most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations".

Over the past 800,000 years, ice core data shows unambiguously that carbon dioxide has varied from values as low as 180 parts per million (ppm) to the pre-industrial level of 270ppm. Paleoclimatologists consider variations in carbon dioxide to be a fundamental factor in controlling climate variations over this time scale.

Top emitters-

In 2005, the world's top-20 emitters comprised 80% of total GHG emissions (PBL, 2010. See notes for the following table). Tabulated below are the top-5 emitters for the year 2005 (MNP, 2007). The second column is the country's or region's share of the global total of annual emissions. The third column is the country's or region's average annual per capita emissions, in tonnes of GHG per head of population:
Top-5 emitters for the year 2005
Country or region  % of global total
annual emissions		 Tonnes of GHG
per capita
Chinab 17 %   5.8
United Statesa 16 % 24.1
European Union-27a 11 % 10.6
Indonesiac   6 % 12.9
India   5 %   2.1

 The distinction between the greenhouse effect and real greenhouses-


A modern Greenhouse in RHS Wisley
The "greenhouse effect" is named by analogy to greenhouses but this is a misnomer. The greenhouse effect and a real greenhouse are similar in that they both limit the rate of thermal energy flowing out of the system, but the mechanisms by which heat is retained are different. A greenhouse works primarily by preventing absorbed heat from leaving the structure through convection, i.e. sensible heat transport. The greenhouse effect heats the earth because greenhouse gases absorb outgoing radiative energy and re-emit some of it back towards earth.

A greenhouse is built of any material that passes sunlight, usually glass, or plastic. It mainly heats up because the Sun warms the ground inside, which then warms the air in the greenhouse. The air continues to heat because it is confined within the greenhouse, unlike the environment outside the greenhouse where warm air near the surface rises and mixes with cooler air aloft. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It has also been demonstrated experimentally (R. W. Wood, 1909) that a "greenhouse" with a cover of rock salt (which is transparent to infra red) heats up an enclosure similarly to one with a glass cover. Thus greenhouses work primarily by preventing convective cooling.

In the greenhouse effect, rather than retaining (sensible) heat by physically preventing movement of the air, greenhouse gases act to warm the Earth by re-radiating some of the energy back towards the surface. This process may exist in real greenhouses, but is comparatively unimportant there.

Bodies other than Earth-

In our solar system, Mars, Venus, and the moon Titan also exhibit greenhouse effects. Titan has an anti-greenhouse effect, in that its atmosphere absorbs solar radiation but is relatively transparent to infrared radiation. Pluto also exhibits behavior superficially similar to the anti-greenhouse effect.

A runaway greenhouse effect occurs if positive feedbacks lead to the evaporation of all greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor is thought to have occurred on Venus.

Greenhouse gas-


Simple diagram of greenhouse effect.
A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, and Titan also contain gases that cause greenhouse effects. Greenhouse gases greatly affect the temperature of the Earth; without them, Earth's surface would be on average about 33 °C (59 °F) colder than at present.

Since the beginning of the Industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has increased the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 280ppm to 390ppm.

Greenhouse gas emissions-

Measurements from Antarctic ice cores show that before industrial emissions started atmospheric CO2 levels were about 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv), and stayed between 260 and 280 during the preceding ten thousand years. Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere have gone up by approximately 35 percent since the 1900s, rising from 280 parts per million by volume to 387 parts per million in 2009. One study using evidence from stomata of fossilized leaves suggests greater variability, with carbon dioxide levels above 300 ppm during the period seven to ten thousand years ago, though others have argued that these findings more likely reflect calibration or contamination problems rather than actual CO2 variability. Because of the way air is trapped in ice (pores in the ice close off slowly to form bubbles deep within the firn) and the time period represented in each ice sample analyzed, these figures represent averages of atmospheric concentrations of up to a few centuries rather than annual or decadal levels.


Recent year-to-year increase of atmospheric CO2.
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the concentrations of most of the greenhouse gases have increased. For example, the concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by about 36% to 380 ppmv, or 100 ppmv over modern pre-industrial levels. The first 50 ppmv increase took place in about 200 years, from the start of the Industrial Revolution to around 1973; however the next 50 ppmv increase took place in about 33 years, from 1973 to 2006.

Recent data also shows that the concentration is increasing at a higher rate. In the 1960s, the average annual increase was only 37% of what it was in 2000 through 2007.
The other greenhouse gases produced from human activity show similar increases in both amount and rate of increase. Many observations are available online in a variety of Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases.
 
Projections-

Based on then-current energy policies, Rogner et al. (2007) projected that energy-related CO2 emissions in 2030 would be 40-110% higher than in 2000. Two-thirds of this increase was projected to come from non-Annex I countries. Per capita emissions in Annex I countries were still projected to remain substantially higher than per capita emissions in non-Annex I countries. Projections consistently showed a 25-90% increase in the Kyoto gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) compared to 2000.

Global warming potential-

The global warming potential (GWP) depends on both the efficiency of the molecule as a greenhouse gas and its atmospheric lifetime. GWP is measured relative to the same mass of CO2 and evaluated for a specific timescale. Thus, if a gas has a high radiative forcing but also a short lifetime, it will have a large GWP on a 20 year scale but a small one on a 100 year scale. Conversely, if a molecule has a longer atmospheric lifetime than CO2 its GWP will increase with the timescale considered.

  1. Images for greenhouse effect-

  2. Carbon dioxide has a variable atmospheric lifetime, and cannot be specified precisely. Recent work indicates that recovery from a large input of atmospheric CO2 from burning fossil fuels will result in an effective lifetime of tens of thousands of years. Carbon dioxide is defined to have a GWP of 1 over all time periods.


Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 ± 3 years and a GWP of 72 over 20 years, 25 over 100 years and 7.6 over 500 years. The decrease in GWP at longer times is because methane is degraded to water and CO2 through chemical reactions in the atmosphere.

An issue of major concern is the possible effect of the burning of fossil fuels and other contributers to the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The action of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in trapping infrared radiation is called the greenhouse effect. It may measurably increase the overall average temperature of the Earth, which could have disastrous consequences. Sometimes the effects of the greenhouse effect are stated in terms of the albedo of the Earth, the overall average reflection coefficient.
 
This graphic of the global air temperature was posted by Phil Jones on behalf of the Climatic Research Unit, UK.

Contributers to Greenhouse Effect-

Those gas molecules in the Earth's atmosphere with three or more atoms are called "greenhouse gases" because they can capture outgoing infrared energy from the Earth, thereby warming the planet. The greenhouse gases include water vapor with three atoms (H2O), ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4). Also, trace quantities of chloro-fluoro-carbons (CFC's) can have a disproportionately large effect.

To attempt to quantify the effects of greenhouse gases on the global temperature, climatologists use the "radiative forcing" of the current atmospheric content of these gases.




From Wikipedia-


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'Know About Solar Panel Theory and Construction Model'

0 comments Posted by pece at 10:07 AM

Solar panel Collected Energy From Sun Light-

"Photovoltaic module" redirects here. For the heat collectors.

An installation of solar panels in rural Mongolia

A solar panel, or photovoltaic module, is composed of individual PV cells. This crystalline-silicon panel has an aluminium frame and glass on the front.

A PV module on the ISS.
A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged interconnected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications.

Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many installations contain several panels. This is known as a photovoltaic array. A photovoltaic installation typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, batteries and interconnection wiring.
Photovoltaic systems are used for either on- or off-grid applications, and on spacecraft.

Theory and construction-


PV cells connected together in a solar panel.
Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer (superstrate) or the back layer (substrate). The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. Crystalline silicon is a commonly used semiconductor.
In order to use the cells in practical applications, they must be:
  • connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system
  • protected from mechanical damage during manufacture, transport, installation and use (in particular against hail impact, wind and snow loads). This is especially important for wafer-based silicon cells which are brittle.
  • protected from moisture, which corrodes metal contacts and interconnections, and for thin-film cells the transparent conductive oxide layer, thus decreasing performance and lifetime.
Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available, based on thin-film cells.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired amount of current source capability.

Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading, and at night. The p-n junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not necessary. Reverse currents are not only inefficient as they represent power losses, but they can also lead to problematic heating of shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and so it desirable to minimize heat in the panels. Very few modules incorporate any design features to decrease temperature, but installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels.

Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.



Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. This has been projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. The use of infrared photovoltaic cells has also been proposed to increase efficiencies, and perhaps produce power at night.

Sunlight conversion rates (solar panel efficiencies) can vary from 5-18% in commercial production, typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. Panels with conversion rates around 18% are in development incorporating innovations such as power generation on the front and back sides.

Rigid thin-film modules-

In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the same production line.
The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are created in situ, a so called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass.
The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6-12%.

 Flexible thin-film modules-

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate.
If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used.
If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used.

The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).

So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in July 2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North American Solar challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells.

The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as technology at the solar cell progress, the other base line equipment such as the battery, inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant technology.
The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019, surpassing 32GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.

A solar cell (also called photovoltaic cell) is a solid state device that converts the energy of sunlight directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Assemblies of cells are used to make solar modules, also known as solar panels. The energy generated from these solar modules, referred to as solar power, is an example of solar energy.

Solar cell-


A solar cell made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer

A monocrystalline solar cell
Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight.

Cells are described as photovoltaic cells when the light source is not necesssarily sunlight. These are used for detecting light or other electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, for example infrared detectors), or measurement of light intensity.

Module embedded electronics-

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This enables performing Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) for each module individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of Power Optimizers, a DC to DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems.

A solar photovoltaic micro-inverter is a device that converts direct current (DC) from a single solar module (panel) to alternating current (AC).

Unlike a central or string inverter that aggregates and converts the power generated by the entire array of solar modules, a micro-inverter converts the DC power from a single solar module to AC. When connected to a central or string inverter the modules are all connected in series; when they have micro-inverters, the modules are all connected in parallel.

A grid-tie photovoltaic micro-inverter ensures that the power supplied will be compliant with the grid power. In geographic locations where buyback agreements are in place, this allows installations with surplus power to sell the power back to the utility. In net metering environments the meter turns forward during normal consumption, such as at night or in the day when local loads demand more than the PV system can supply, and backwards when the PV production is greater that the load consumption. The concept of panels delivering AC power has appeal for small-scale home project applications at lower voltage levels.

 Module performance and lifetime-

Module performance is generally rated under Standard Test Conditions (STC) : irradiance of 1,000 W/m², solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25°C.
Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, kWp, and module efficiency (%).

Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar panels were used only to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the panel changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the panel operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to make sure the panel is compatible with a given system.

Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the panel can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a meter directly on an illuminated panel's terminals or on its disconnected cable.
The peak power rating, kWp, is the maximum output according to STC (not the maximum possible output).

Solar panels must withstand heat, cold, rain and hail for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80%

 Production-

7.5 GW of installations were completed and connected in 2009. IMS Research estimates that shipments of PV modules were far higher. Shipments exceeded installations due to the record amount of modules shipped in the final quarter of the year to serve installations completed in the first quarter of 2010 in booming European markets such as Germany, Italy, France and Czech Republic

 Top ten-

Top ten suppliers (by power) in 2009 were:
  1. First Solar
  2. Suntech
  3. Sharp
  4. Yingli
  5. Trina Solar
  6. Sunpower Corporation
  7. Kyocera Corporation
  8. Canadian Solar
  9. SolarWorld AG
  10. Sanyo Electric

 Price-

Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers (typically up to 10 MWp annually), and large quantity buyers (self explanatory—and with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term—and only in the long-term—there is clearly a systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example in 1998 it was estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about $4.50, which was 33 times lower than the cost in 1970 of $150.

Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of non-microinverter solar panels (as wiring, converters, racking systems and various components) make up about half of the total costs of installations. Also, standardizing technologies could encourage greater adoption of solar panels and, in turn, economies of scale.

Today, Concentrating Solar Power supplied power costs 12¢(US)/kwh to produce. It is expected to cost 6¢(US)/kwh by 2015 due to improvements in technology and reductions in equipment manufacturing costs.

 Mounting Systems-

 Trackers

Solar Trackers increase the amount of energy produced per panel.

Solar energy-

.For generation of electricity using solar energy,

Nellis Solar Power Plant in the United States, the largest photovoltaic power plant in North America.
Renewable energy
Biofuel
Biomass
Geothermal
Hydroelectricity
Solar energy
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power

Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar-powered resources such as wind and wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.

Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaics. Solar energy's uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection, daylighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.To harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

  Fixed Racks-

Fixed racks hold panels in a single location as the sun moves across the sky.
The fixed rack sets the angle at which the panel is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude is common.

Energy from the Sun-


About half the incoming solar energy reaches the Earth's surface.
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere.spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The

Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesischemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. green plants convert solar energy into
Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption
Solar 3,850,000 EJ
Wind 2,250 EJ
Biomass 3,000 EJ
Primary energy use (2005) 487 EJ
Electricity (2005) 56.7 EJ

 Solar vehicles-

 Solar vehicle, Solar-charged vehicle, Electric boat, and Solar balloon

Australia hosts the World Solar Challenge where solar cars like the Nuna3 race through a 3,021 km (1,877 mi) course from Darwin to Adelaide.
Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.

Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.

In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. In 1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the sun21 catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007. There are plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.


Helios UAV in solar powered flight.

Architecture and urban planning-

 Passive solar building design and Urban heat island

Darmstadt University of TechnologyGermany won the 2007 Solar Decathlon in Washington, D.C. with this passive house designed specifically for the humid and hot subtropical climate. 
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.

The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design. The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting, heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance.

 Heating, cooling and ventilation-

 Solar heating, Thermal mass, Solar chimney, and Solar air conditioning

Solar House #1 of Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, built in 1939, used seasonal thermal storage for year-round heating.
In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for 30% (4.65 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings. Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.

Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.

 

 

 

 From Wikipedia-

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